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The ecological premise that behavior is a function of the nteractional/transactional relationship between person and environment [B = f (PxE)] provides a framework for understanding factors relating to retention. Lenning, Beal and Sauer's (1980) work as presented by Beal and Noel (1980) in the monograph What Works in Student Retention supports the use of the ecological perspective as well as provides the elements for the ecological framework.
The following excerpt from Beal and Noel (1980) illustrates the utility of the ecological approach:
"The Lenning document describes the student characteristics, the environmental characteristics, and the interactions between student and institution that seem to relate positively to attrition and retention. The following outline summarizes the various characteristics that Lenning et al. see as negatively or positively related to retention. In each case the relationship of the item to retention is indicated by a plus (+), a minus ( - ), and M (for mixed findings), or a zero (for no relationship).
1. Factors related to retention
A. Student characteristics
1. Academic factors
2. Demographic factors
3. Aspirations and Motivations. Research finding are mixed concerning the role of aspirations and motivations in retention. Nevertheless, a synthesis if the literature would seem to indicate some relationships do exist.
4. Financial factors are commonly given as a reason for dropping out of college. The likelihood is that finances are secondary to other factors related to commitment and institutional fit. Nevertheless, some variables are found to operate in relating finances to retention.
Much attention in the research is devoted to students and their problems. Increasingly, attention is directed at the college environment as a major factor in retention.
1. Objective environment
C. Interaction:
Retention research today emphasizes the importance of the interaction between students and the institution. The degree of "fit" may determine the likelihood of students staying or leaving. Another term, which may describe it better, is "belonging." A student develops a sense of belonging as the result of many and varied interactions with the college and student environment. Such a feeling will enhance retention."
(Beal and Noel, 1980, pp. 3, 4 & 5.)
While this excerpt has been lengthy, the reader is encouraged to read the entire text of What Works in Student Retention. The publication is the report of a joint project of the American College Testing Program and the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems.
References:
Beal, P.E. and Noel, L. What Works in Student Retention. Iowa City/Boulder, Colorado:
ACT/NCHEMS, 1980.
Lenning, O.T., Beal, P.E. and Sauer, K. Attrition and Retention: Evidence for Action and Research. Boulder, Colorado: NCHEMS, 1980.
Every environment possesses structural properties by which it may be described. The structure is a framework or support for the processes that take place within it. In environmental design, there is a realization of the necessity for creating an adequate structure to provide for the range of planned activities. For purposes of classification and field description, an environment may be placed anywhere on the following continua:
Static-Dynamic
A static environment maintains a relatively fixed structure over a period of time. It may be either stable or stagnant. A dynamic environment manifests a rapidly changing structure. It may be innovative or chaotic.
Laissez-Faire - Programmed
In a laissez-faire environment, there is a lack of overall approach or consensus. The objectives are poorly delineated or inadequately operationalized. In a programmed environment, there is evidence of a consistent approach - a deliberate attempt to attain specified objectives. Objectives are translated into program activities.
Impoverished-Rich
An impoverished environment provides few opportunities for person-to-person, or
person-to-object interactions. A rich environment provides many opportunities for such interactions. Learning is viewed as a function of the quantity and quality of such interactions.
Low Intensity-High Intensity
Sensory stimulation is high in a high-impact environment and low in a low-impact environment. A child's attention and involvement is a function of the stimulus levels of his environment. If a child has a high level of internal stimulation ("noise"-fantasy), he may fail to respond to low levels of environmental stimulation.
Closed-Open
An environment which is closed is isolated or buffered from the "outside world." It becomes an island in the larger social system. An open environment by contrast is receptive to outside stimulation and keeps in tune with it.
Broad Rope-Narrow Scope
Scope refers to the range of student behaviors that the environment is designed to influence. A broad scope environment is holistic, a narrow scope environment focuses upon a narrow range of behaviors and is quite selective in its effect upon the students.
Conforming- Nonconforming
A conforming environment is plastic. It may readily be modified by its inhabitants. A
nonconforming environment resists any efforts at inner-directed change. It is rigid and unyielding.
Deviation Amplifying-Deviation Correcting
In a deviation amplifying environment, any irregularity introduced tends to be magnified out of proportion to its importance. This environment is unstable. A deviation correcting environment is stable; it corrects any introduced irregularity and easily regains balance.
High Load-Low Load
A high load environment is extremely demanding of the student and pushes him toward peak production. A low load environment is relaxed and the student is seldom required to put forth strong continuous effort. Frequent leisure, rest, and relaxation are indicative of low loading.
Primitive- Technologized
A primitive environment has few tools, equipment, or modern conveniences. It is often found in a camp or natural setting. A technologized environment is mechanized, automated and modern. It is often in a suburban or urban setting.
Social-Asocial
A social environment maximizes interpersonal relationships and social groupings. An asocial environment minimizes human contacts and tends to isolate individuals.
Original-Imposed
An original environment is what exists before people self-consciously set about to alter it. An imposed environment is a restructured environment which is a product of conscious intervention.
Efficient-Inefficient
An efficient environment is a high-yield environment-the output compares favorably with the cost involved. An inefficient environment has an unfavorable cost-benefit analysis. It is effective, but too expensive.
Effective-Ineffective
An effective environment is valid, i.e., it produces the product for which it is designed. An ineffective environment is not valid. It fails to produce the product for which it is designed, i.e., the objectives are not operationalized. An environment may be effective (valid) but inefficient (costly). It cannot be efficient unless it is effective.
Benign-Noxious
This is a summary judgment. An environment is benign which has a positive effect on the student. An environment is noxious which has a negative effect on the student.
(Source: Leland Kaiser, personal communication)
STATIC : : : : : : : : DYNAMIC LAISSEZ-FAIRE : : : : : : : : PROGRAMMED IMPOVERISHED : : : : : : : : RICH HIGH INTENSITY : : : : : : : : LOW INTENSITY CLOSED : : : : : : : : OPEN NARROW SCOPE : : : : : : : : BROAD SCOPE CONFORMING : : : : : : : : NON-CONFORMING DEVIATION DEVIATION AMPLIGYING : : : : : : : : CORRECTING HIGH LOAD : : : : : : : : LOW LOAD PRIMITIVE : : : : : : : : TECHNOLOGIZED SOCIAL : : : : : : : : ASOCIAL IMPOSED : : : : : : : : ORIGINAL EFFICIENT : : : : : : : : INEFFICIENT BENIGN : : : : : : : : NOXIOUS EFFECTIVE : : : : : : : : INEFFECTIVE
(Reader is referred to: Osgood, C., Suci, G. and Tannenbaum, P. The Measurement of Meaning Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957)
"For all living things the essence of a habitat is that it must be total, enduring and sustaining. In other words, a habitat must be habitable, not only in terms of food intake and reproduction but as an enfolding, protective, and satisfying world. It must offer resources and present challenges to which the species is capable of adapting its physiological and behavioral patterns in a meaningful and rewarding way. Insofar as the habitat itself is in course of change, such must be compatible, in its rate and direction, with that of which its users are capable."-Max Nicholson, (The Big Change: After the Environmental Revolution, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973, pg. 270.)
"The capacity of an ecosystem to retain its integrity depends not on the uniformity of the environment but on its diversity."-Murray Bookchin, (The Ecology of Freedom, Palo Alto, California: Cheshire Books, 1982, pg. 24).
"What ultimately distinguishes an ecological outlook as uniquely liberatory is the challenge it raises to conventional notions of hierarchy....Ecologists are rarely aware that their science provides strong philosophical underpinnings for a nonhierarchical view of reality."-Murray Bookchin, (The Ecology of Freedom. Palo Alto, California: Cheshire Books, 1982, pg. 25).
This material resides on an Indiana State University server and is maintained by
Will Barratt.
Please forward any problems and comments to him.