What Happened!
"Breaking the stillness of a May evening in 1969, bulldozers leveled several small lots in Berkeley, California. Repercussions were heard around the world. In the resulting furor one young man died, two were permanently injured, 482 people were arrested, and court cases still continue. . .
The Beginning.
"The park story begins with a piece of land a few blocks from the Berkeley campus....In 1967, the University of California administration perceived that the character of the surrounding neighborhood was deteriorating, and, despite protests from the community, purchased the land... and tore down the houses....The vacant land became an untended parking lot, full of pot holes, old beer cans, and weeds.
By spring of 1969, the street culture in Berkeley was becoming increasingly vocal and militant....As summer approached, the Berkeley street people became concerned with the deteriorating physical environment around Telegraph Avenue....People asked why these vacant lots could not become parks - not the typical manicured lawns and neat rows of trees that are maintained by the city, but different kinds of parks created and maintained by the neighborhood itself."
The Park.
"Leaflets and notices in underground papers announced that park development activities would begin on April 10. ...It has been estimated that almost one thousand people a day were involved in this project. Design students as well as professional landscape designers and architects in the area contributed labor, expertise, and equipment for bringing in soil and planting shrubs and trees."
The End.
"Governor Ronald Reagan viewed this activity as a threat to law and order and so did several members of the University Board of Regents....At 3 A.M. on May 14, 1969, University employees and Berkeley police posted 'No Trespassing' signs around the park. Early the following morning, police moved in with rifles and tear gas, and an 8 foot high wire mesh fence was constructed around the site. Several days of disturbances ensued involving students, street people, police and National Guardsmen." (Sommer, 1972, pages I and 2)
The Revisit.
For student personnel administrators, Sommer's vivid account of the events surrounding People's Park will probably bring on a haunting feeling of anxiety. Many were involved in similar events across the country. But a revisit or second look presents a different interpretation. For example, Environmentalist Alan Temko described it as "the most significant innovation in recreational design since the great public parks of the 19th and 20th Centuries. (Sommer, 1972) Also, Architect Sim Van der Ryn spoke of it as the forerunner of a new kind of environmental planning which would follow up user-generated design with community control. (Sommer 1972) And as Sommer stated "...the idea of people designing and maintaining their own surroundings implies fundamental changes in the role of the designer and in the nature of the client." (Sommer, 1972, page 3)
An Ecological Perspective.
Campus ecology as a perspective for student affairs work implies the same fundamental changes in roles of students (participants in campus design) and in the nature of the client (students, faculty, staff and community). All who are to be touched by the environment should participate in its design and continual redesign, both the physical as well as the social/educational .
References:
Sommer, Robert. Design A wareness. San Francisco: Rinehart Press, 1972.
Persons are often described by the demographic variables of age, race, and gender. In addition there is an abundance of "personality" variables such as attitudes, values, and traits. On the other hand, we are much less accustomed to describing environments. What are the variables or the ways to conceptualize environments? Do taxonomies for campus environments exist?
A number of conceptual frameworks from which to view campus environments do exist. In Vol. 1, No. 2 of The Campus Ecologist, a brief description along with the basic references were given for the social ecology, the physical setting, and the ecology of student development approaches. The following continues with additional approaches.
Walsh's Campus Environment Approach
Walsh in his 1973 ACT monograph outlines a number of ways to approach the person-environment interaction that is applicable to the college/university environment. He reviews six approaches.
Basic references are:
Walsh, W.B. Theories of Person-Environment Interaction: Implications for the College Student. Iowa City: The American College Testing Program, 1973.
Walsh, W.B. "Person/Environment Interaction." In J. Banning, ed. Campus Ecology: A Perspective for Student Affairs. NASPA Monograph. Cincinnati, Ohio: 1978.
A Community Psychology Approach
Writing from a perspective of community psychology, Rappaport (1977) outlines a framework to view environments. Within this framework are the following eight approaches:
1. Identification of the reinforcement contingencies in the environment
2. Environment as an aggregate of person characteristics
3. An organizational development approach focusing on environmental intervention strategies
4. Assessment of geographical, physical, and architectural environment
5. Behavior setting approach
6. Organizational climate approach
7. Systematic properties of the environment
8. Social ecology approach
Basic reference is:
Rappaport, J. Community Psychology: Values, research and action. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977.
Holland's Model Environment Approach
Holland (1966) suggests six model environments to characterize the settings in which behaviors occur. These model environments are defined in terms of the situation created by the persons who dominate the settings. The following six environments were presented by Holland and described by Walsh (1973) in the following manner:
1. "The Realistic environment is characterized by demands for explicit, physical, concrete tasks..."
2. "The Investigative environment is characterized by tasks that require thinking response...abstract in nature...creativity and imagination..."
3. "The Social environment requires the ability to interpret as well as to modify human behavior..."
4. "The Conventional environment is characterized by tasks that require systematic, concrete, and routine responses..."
5. "The Enterprising environment is characterized by tasks requiring verbal responses meant to influence other people..."
6. "...the artistic environment, tasks generally require the use of imagination as well as personal interpretation of feelings, ideas, or facts."
Basic references are:
Holland, J.L. "A Psychological Classification Scheme for Vocations and Major Fields." Journal of Counseling Psychology 13 (1966): 278-288.
Holland, J.L. The Psychology of Vocational Choice: A Theory of Personality Types and Model Environments. Waltham, Massachusetts: Blaisdell, 1966.
Walsh, W.B. Theories of Person-Environment Interaction: Implications for the College Student. Iowa City: The American College Testing Program, 1973.
Summary
The above conceptual systems or taxonomies of the environment are "samplers" of ways to view campus environments. By exploring the utility of these and other approaches, not only may a more useful taxonomy emerge, but we may also gain a better understanding of the role the campus environment plays in student development.
Environmental Assessment and Design, by Robert K. Conyne and R. James Clack. Praeger, New York, 1981. 183 PP.
Since the early 60s we have witnessed major changes in orientation toward social problems. Mental health professionals, through community psychiatry and community psychology, began to address variables beyond the interpersonal and the intrapersonal. Political, economic, and organizational issues became important subject matter. The ecology movement focused attention on the critical environment issues. Students in colleges and universities began to force changes in policies and matters critical to institutional life. Social conditions impacting ethnic minorities, women, and the disabled became targets of advocacy movements. With these changes came, as stated by Conyne and Clack, the "beginning of a shift from person-centered explanations of social problems, toward more environmentally oriented conceptions". Environmental Assessment and Design presents a conceptual framework to understand the "shift" and a set of technologies to bring about change within organizations and institutions.
Environmental Assessment and Design is organized into 6 major topic areas: (1) The Environment: An Untapped Force for Change; (2) Environmental Classification: Understanding the Human Environment; (3) Environmental Assessment: Changing the Person-Environment Interface; (4) Environmental Design: Altering the Human Environment; (5) Environmental Change Technology: A Method for Environmental Design; and (6) Environmental Design Implications and Considerations. Each of these topics is addressed from a broad ecological base. As the authors state, ". . . this model takes a people-by-environment change perspective, where the interaction of behavior with environmental conditions becomes the change focus".
Environmental Assessment and Design has many strengths. One lies in its conceptual formulation of this broad and emerging field. Handles are provided for grasping the essential issues, but they wisely stop short of offering a "cookbook" approach. It presents concepts and tools from a variety of fields, not one discipline. While the book is not a "cookbook", it does not leave the reader hanging on theory only, as it speaks on and connects theory to practice.
A weakness in the authors' conceptual framework may be seen in the book's title, Environmental Assessment and Design. The title suggests, as does much of the text, that environmental assessment and design are co-equal concepts. A preferred view would hold that the central organizing concept is environmental design while assessment is just one of several sub elements in the design process. Within this alternative focus, the issues relating to design and redesign could have been more clearly addressed.
The strengths of the book far outweigh the concern of the relationship between design and assessment. As do the authors, I would recommend the book as important reading for counselors, consultants, trainers, action researchers, planners, therapists, group workers, and administrators who are considering the role of change agent.
A more complete review of Environmental Assessment and Design can be found in the Soc. Sci. Med. Vol. 17 pp. 45-46, 1983.
Books
Ardrey, R. The Territorial Imperative. New York: Atheneum 1966.
Fuller, Buckminster. Operating Manualfor Spaceship Earth. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969.
Moos, R. and Gerst, M. University Residence Environment Scale ManuaL Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologist Press,
Sommer, R. Personal Space. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1969.
Sommer, R. Design Awareness. San Francisco: Rinehart Press 1972.
Sommer, R. Tight Spaces: Hard Architecture and How to Humanize It. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1974.
Van der Ryn, S. and Silverstein, M. Dorms at Berkeley: An environmental analysis. Berkeley: University of California Center for Planning and Development Research, 1967.
Journal Articles
Altman, 1. "Privacy: A conceptural analysis." Environment and Behavior 8 (1976): 7-31.
Banning, J.H. "Ecology: A Perspective for Campus Living." Conference Proceedings, ACUHO, Houston, Texas (July 1976).
Baron, R. "Ecological Approaches to Understanding Human Crowding." Journal of Population 2 (1979): 235-258.
Baron, R., Mandel, D., Adams, C., and Griffen, L. "Effects of Social Density in University Residential Environments." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976): 434-446.
Brown, R.D. "Manipulation of The Environmental Press in A College Residence Hall." Personnel and Cuidance Journal 6 (1968): 555-560.
Corazzini, J., Wilson, S., and Huebner, L. "The Environmental Satisfaction Questionnaire: A Guide to Assessment and Program Development." Journal of College Student Personnel 18 (1977): 169-173.
Daher, D.M., Corazzini, J., and McKinnon, R.D. "An Environmental Redesign Program for Residence Halls." Journal of College Student Personnel 18 (1977): 11 - 15.
Deasy, C.M. "When Architects Consult People." Psychology Today (March 1970): 55-57.
Gerst, M.S. and Moos, R.H. "Social Ecology of University Student Residences." Journal of Educational Psychology 63 (1972):
Gerst, M.S. and Sweetwood, H. "Correlates of Dormitory Social Climate." Environment and Behavior 5 (December 1973).
Hansen, W.B. and Altman, 1. "Decorating Personal Places: descriptive analysis." Environment and Behavior 8 (I97 ) , 491 -504.
Heilweil, M. "The Influence of Dormitory Architecture on Resident Behavior." Environment and Behavior 5 (1973): 377-411.
High, T. and Sundstrom, E. "Room Flexibility and Space Use in a Dormitory." Environment and Behavior 9 (1977): 81-90.
Holahan, C. and Wilcox, B. "Residential Satisfaction and Friendship Formation in High and Low Rise Student Housing: An Interactional Analysis." Journal of Educational Psychology 70 (1978): 237-241.
Jackson, G.S. and Schroeder, C.C. "Behavioral Zoning for Stimulation Seekers." Journal of College and University Housing 7 (1977): 7-40.
Montgomery, J.R., et.al. "The Impact of Different Residence Hall Environments on Student Attitudes." Journal of College Student Personnel 16 (1957): 389-393
Schroeder, C.C. "New Strategies for Structuring Residential Environments." Journal of College Student Personnel 17 (1976): 386-390.
Schroeder, C.C. and Froesh, P.N. "Applying Environmental Management Strategies in Residence Halls." NASPA Journal 6 (1977): 51-57.
Schroeder, C.C. "Territoriality: Conceptual and Metholological Issues for Residence Educators." Journal of College and University Student Housing 8 (1979): 9-15
Schroeder, C.C., Warner, R. and Malone, D. "Effects of Assignment to Living Units by Personality Types on Environmental Perceptions and Student Development." Journal of College Student Personnel 21 (1980): 443-448.
Schuh, J.H. "Implementing the Ecosystem Model: Phase 11." The Journal of College and University Housing 8 (1978): 6
Schuh, J.H. and Allan, M.R. "Implementing the Ecosystem Model." Journal of College Student Personnel 19 (197t 119-122.
Smail, M.M.P., DeYoung, A.J. and Moos, R.H. "The University Residence Environment Scale: A Method for Describing University Student Living Groups." Journal of College Student Personnel 15 (September 1974): 357-365.
Sommer, R. "Student Reactions to Four Types of Residence Halls." The Journal of College Student Personnel (July 1968): 232-237.
Sommer, R. "Room Density and User Satisfaction." Environment and Behavior (December 1971).
This material resides is maintained by Will Barratt. Please forward any problems and comments to him.